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Apoptosis(凋亡)

As one of the cellular death mechanisms, apoptosis, also known as programmed cell death, can be defined as the process of a proper death of any cell under certain or necessary conditions. Apoptosis is controlled by the interactions between several molecules and responsible for the elimination of unwanted cells from the body.

Many biochemical events and a series of morphological changes occur at the early stage and increasingly continue till the end of apoptosis process. Morphological event cascade including cytoplasmic filament aggregation, nuclear condensation, cellular fragmentation, and plasma membrane blebbing finally results in the formation of apoptotic bodies. Several biochemical changes such as protein modifications/degradations, DNA and chromatin deteriorations, and synthesis of cell surface markers form morphological process during apoptosis.

Apoptosis can be stimulated by two different pathways: (1) intrinsic pathway (or mitochondria pathway) that mainly occurs via release of cytochrome c from the mitochondria and (2) extrinsic pathway when Fas death receptor is activated by a signal coming from the outside of the cell.

Different gene families such as caspases, inhibitor of apoptosis proteins, B cell lymphoma (Bcl)-2 family, tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor gene superfamily, or p53 gene are involved and/or collaborate in the process of apoptosis.

Caspase family comprises conserved cysteine aspartic-specific proteases, and members of caspase family are considerably crucial in the regulation of apoptosis. There are 14 different caspases in mammals, and they are basically classified as the initiators including caspase-2, -8, -9, and -10; and the effectors including caspase-3, -6, -7, and -14; and also the cytokine activators including caspase-1, -4, -5, -11, -12, and -13. In vertebrates, caspase-dependent apoptosis occurs through two main interconnected pathways which are intrinsic and extrinsic pathways. The intrinsic or mitochondrial apoptosis pathway can be activated through various cellular stresses that lead to cytochrome c release from the mitochondria and the formation of the apoptosome, comprised of APAF1, cytochrome c, ATP, and caspase-9, resulting in the activation of caspase-9. Active caspase-9 then initiates apoptosis by cleaving and thereby activating executioner caspases. The extrinsic apoptosis pathway is activated through the binding of a ligand to a death receptor, which in turn leads, with the help of the adapter proteins (FADD/TRADD), to recruitment, dimerization, and activation of caspase-8 (or 10). Active caspase-8 (or 10) then either initiates apoptosis directly by cleaving and thereby activating executioner caspase (-3, -6, -7), or activates the intrinsic apoptotic pathway through cleavage of BID to induce efficient cell death. In a heat shock-induced death, caspase-2 induces apoptosis via cleavage of Bid.

Bcl-2 family members are divided into three subfamilies including (i) pro-survival subfamily members (Bcl-2, Bcl-xl, Bcl-W, MCL1, and BFL1/A1), (ii) BH3-only subfamily members (Bad, Bim, Noxa, and Puma9), and (iii) pro-apoptotic mediator subfamily members (Bax and Bak). Following activation of the intrinsic pathway by cellular stress, pro‑apoptotic BCL‑2 homology 3 (BH3)‑only proteins inhibit the anti‑apoptotic proteins Bcl‑2, Bcl-xl, Bcl‑W and MCL1. The subsequent activation and oligomerization of the Bak and Bax result in mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization (MOMP). This results in the release of cytochrome c and SMAC from the mitochondria. Cytochrome c forms a complex with caspase-9 and APAF1, which leads to the activation of caspase-9. Caspase-9 then activates caspase-3 and caspase-7, resulting in cell death. Inhibition of this process by anti‑apoptotic Bcl‑2 proteins occurs via sequestration of pro‑apoptotic proteins through binding to their BH3 motifs.

One of the most important ways of triggering apoptosis is mediated through death receptors (DRs), which are classified in TNF superfamily. There exist six DRs: DR1 (also called TNFR1); DR2 (also called Fas); DR3, to which VEGI binds; DR4 and DR5, to which TRAIL binds; and DR6, no ligand has yet been identified that binds to DR6. The induction of apoptosis by TNF ligands is initiated by binding to their specific DRs, such as TNFα/TNFR1, FasL /Fas (CD95, DR2), TRAIL (Apo2L)/DR4 (TRAIL-R1) or DR5 (TRAIL-R2). When TNF-α binds to TNFR1, it recruits a protein called TNFR-associated death domain (TRADD) through its death domain (DD). TRADD then recruits a protein called Fas-associated protein with death domain (FADD), which then sequentially activates caspase-8 and caspase-3, and thus apoptosis. Alternatively, TNF-α can activate mitochondria to sequentially release ROS, cytochrome c, and Bax, leading to activation of caspase-9 and caspase-3 and thus apoptosis. Some of the miRNAs can inhibit apoptosis by targeting the death-receptor pathway including miR-21, miR-24, and miR-200c.

p53 has the ability to activate intrinsic and extrinsic pathways of apoptosis by inducing transcription of several proteins like Puma, Bid, Bax, TRAIL-R2, and CD95.

Some inhibitors of apoptosis proteins (IAPs) can inhibit apoptosis indirectly (such as cIAP1/BIRC2, cIAP2/BIRC3) or inhibit caspase directly, such as XIAP/BIRC4 (inhibits caspase-3, -7, -9), and Bruce/BIRC6 (inhibits caspase-3, -6, -7, -8, -9). 

Any alterations or abnormalities occurring in apoptotic processes contribute to development of human diseases and malignancies especially cancer.

References:
1.Yağmur Kiraz, Aysun Adan, Melis Kartal Yandim, et al. Major apoptotic mechanisms and genes involved in apoptosis[J]. Tumor Biology, 2016, 37(7):8471.
2.Aggarwal B B, Gupta S C, Kim J H. Historical perspectives on tumor necrosis factor and its superfamily: 25 years later, a golden journey.[J]. Blood, 2012, 119(3):651.
3.Ashkenazi A, Fairbrother W J, Leverson J D, et al. From basic apoptosis discoveries to advanced selective BCL-2 family inhibitors[J]. Nature Reviews Drug Discovery, 2017.
4.McIlwain D R, Berger T, Mak T W. Caspase functions in cell death and disease[J]. Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in biology, 2013, 5(4): a008656.
5.Ola M S, Nawaz M, Ahsan H. Role of Bcl-2 family proteins and caspases in the regulation of apoptosis[J]. Molecular and cellular biochemistry, 2011, 351(1-2): 41-58.

Products for  Apoptosis

  1. Cat.No. 产品名称 Information
  2. GC52370 Citrullinated Vimentin (R144) (139-159)-biotin Peptide A biotinylated and citrullinated vimentin peptide
  3. GC52367 Citrullinated Vimentin (G146R) (R144 + R146) (139-159)-biotin Peptide A biotinylated and citrullinated mutant vimentin peptide
  4. GC52364 Vimentin (139-159)-biotin Peptide A biotinylated vimentin peptide
  5. GC52358 Malachite Green (chloride) A triphenylmethane dye
  6. GC52355 BimS BH3 (51-76) (human) (trifluoroacetate salt) A Bim-derived peptide
  7. GC52344 Bak BH3 (72-87) (human) (trifluoroacetate salt) A Bak-derived peptide
  8. GC52325 MeTC7 A vitamin D receptor antagonist
  9. GC52318 Oleic Acid-13C5 An internal standard for the quantification of oleic acid
  10. GC52293 STAT3 Inhibitor 4m A STAT3 inhibitor
  11. GC52291 KAS 08 A STING activator
  12. GC52288 Fumonisin B1-13C34 An internal standard for the quantification of fumonisin B1
  13. GC52269 Cinnabarinic Acid-d4 An internal standard for the quantification of cinnabarinic acid
  14. GC52250 Mevalonate (lithium salt) An intermediate in the mevalonate pathway
  15. GC52245 CAY10792 An anticancer agent
  16. GC52227 5-(3',4'-Dihydroxyphenyl)-γ-Valerolactone An active metabolite of various polyphenols
  17. GC67618 α-Tocopherol phosphate disodium α-Tocopherol phosphate (alpha-Tocopherol phosphate) 是一种抗氧化剂,可以保护长波 UVA1 诱导的细胞死亡,并清除 UVA1 诱导的活性氧 (ROS)。α-Tocopherol phosphate disodium 可抑制内皮祖细胞凋亡 (apoptosis),增加高糖/低氧条件下内皮祖细胞迁移能力,促进血管生成。
  18. GC67272 N6-Benzyladenosine DNPH1i (N6-benzyladenosine,BAPR) is a competitive inhibitor of adenosine deaminase(ADA) from L-1210 cells in axenic culture as well as a potent antiproliferative agent in vitro and in vivo.
  19. GC66824 D-α-Tocopherol Succinate D-α-Tocopherol Succinate (Vitamin E succinate) 是一种抗氧化生育酚,是维生素 E 的一种盐形式。D-α-Tocopherol Succinat 抑制 Cisplatin 引起的毒性。D-α-Tocopherol Succinate 可用于癌症的研究。
  20. GC66479 GSK2593074A GSK2593074A (GSK'074) 是一种程序性坏死 (necroptosis) 抑制剂, 抑制 RIP1 和 RIP3。
  21. GC66462 MGH-CP1 MGH-CP1 is a potent and selective inhibitor of transcriptional enhanced associate domain (TEAD) palmitoylation. MGH-CP1 exhibits dose-dependent and potent inhibition of TEAD2/4 auto-palmitoylation in vitro with IC50 of 710 nM and 672 nM, respectively.
  22. GC66460 UCB-5307 UCB-5307 是一种 TNF 抑制剂,对人 TNFα 的 KD 为 9 nM。UCB-5307 可以穿透预制的 hTNF/hTNFR1 复合物。
  23. GC66403 Z-DEVD-AMC Z-DEVD-AMC 是一种选择性 caspase-3 底物,可通过荧光光谱法测量。 AMC 可用作基于 AMC 的酶底物 (包括基于 AMC 的半胱天冬酶底物) 的荧光参考标准。
  24. GC66394 Penpulimab Penpulimab 是一种 IgG1 抗 PD-1 单克隆抗体,具有抗肿瘤活性。
  25. GC66382 Lucatumumab Lucatumumab (HCD122) 是一种全人抗 CD40 拮抗剂单克隆抗体,可阻断 CD40/ CD40L 介导的信号通路。Lucatumumab 可有效介导抗体依赖性细胞介导的细胞毒性 (ADCC) 和肿瘤细胞清除,可用于顽固性淋巴瘤、慢性淋巴细胞白血病 (CLL) 和多发性骨髓瘤研究。
  26. GC66378 Serplulimab

    Serplulimab (HLX 10) 是人源化单克隆抗 PD-1 抗体。Serplulimab 可用于小细胞肺癌的研究。

  27. GC66370 Zapalog Zapalog 是一种光可裂解的小分子异二聚体,可用于重复启动和瞬间终止两种靶蛋白之间的物理相互作用。 Zapalog 对用 FKBP 和 DHFR 结构域标记的任何两种蛋白质进行二聚化,直到暴露于光下导致其光解。
  28. GC66356 Cusatuzumab Cusatuzumab 是一种人 αCD70 单克隆抗体。 Cusatuzumab 显示出增强抗体依赖性的细胞毒性。 Cusatuzumab 可减少白血病干细胞 (LSC) 并触发与骨髓分化和凋亡 apoptosis 相关的基因特征。Cusatuzumab 具有研究急性白血病 (AML) 的潜力。
  29. GC66354 Ezetimibe-d4-1 An internal standard for the quantification of ezetimibe
  30. GC66345 Golimumab Golimumab (CNTO-148) 是一种有效的人 IgG1 TNFα 拮抗剂单克隆抗体。Golimumab 具有抗炎活性,并抑制 IL-6 和 IL-1β 的产生。Golimumab 通过靶向和中和 TNF 来防止炎症发生和软骨或骨骼的破坏。Golimumab 具有抗癌活性并诱导细胞凋亡 (apoptosis)。Golimumab 可用于类风湿关节炎、克罗恩病和癌症研究。
  31. GC66344 Envafolimab Envafolimab (ASC 22; KN 035) 是人源化的单域抗PD-L1 抗体的重组蛋白。 Envafolimab 是由抗 PD-L1 结构域与人 IgG1 抗体的 Fc 片段融合而成。Envafolimab 阻断 PD-L1 和 PD-1 之间的相互作用,IC50 值为 5.25 nm。Envafolimab 显示出抗肿瘤活性。Envafolimab 具有研究实体瘤的潜力。
  32. GC66343 n-Butyl-β-D-fructofuranoside n-Butyl-β-D-fructofuranoside 可以从 kangaisan 中分离出来。n-Butyl-β-D-fructofuranoside 通过线粒体途径诱导细胞凋亡。n-Butyl-β-D-fructofuranoside 可用于癌症研究。
  33. GC66337 Anti-Mouse PD-L1 Antibody Anti-Mouse PD-L1 Antibody 是抗小鼠 PD-L1 的 IgG2b 抗体抑制剂,宿主是 Rat。
  34. GC66054 Nrf2 activator-4 Nrf2 activator-4 (Compound 20a) 是一种高效的、具有口服活性的 Nrf2 激活剂,EC50 值为 0.63 µM。Nrf2 activator-4 抑制小神经胶质细胞中活性氧 (reactive oxygen species) 的产生。Nrf2 activator-4 在 scopolamine 诱导的小鼠模型中能有效地恢复学习和记忆损伤。
  35. GC66048 δ-Secretase inhibitor 11 Compound 11, a non-toxic and selective δ-secretase inhibitor (IC50=0.7 μM, in fluorescence-based assay) that interacts with both the active site and allosteric site of δ-secretase in Co-crystal structure analysis. The IC50 value of the compound 11 towards δ-secretase in Pala cells is 0.8 μM.
  36. GC66021 TP-021 TP-021 (BCL6-IN-8c) 是一种有效的具有口服活性的 BCL6-共抑制因子相互作用抑制剂,在无细胞酶联免疫吸附试验中,其 IC50 为 0.10 µM。
  37. GC66017 Mcl-1 inhibitor 6 Mcl-1 inhibitor 6 是一种口服有效的,选择性的骨髓细胞白血病 1 (Mcl-1) 蛋白抑制剂,Kd 值为 0.23 nM,Ki 值为 0.02 μM。Mcl-1 inhibitor 6 对 Mcl-1 的选择性高于其他 Bcl-2 家族成员 (Bcl-2、Bcl2A1、Bcl-xL 和 Bcl-w,Kd>10 μM)。Mcl-1 inhibitor 6 是一种有效的抗肿瘤剂。
  38. GC66004 K67 K67 特异性抑制 Keap1 和 S349磷酸化 p62 之间的相互作用。K67 抑制 p-p62 与 Keap1 的竞争性结合,通过恢复 Keap1 驱动的 Nrf2 泛素化降解,有效抑制高表达S351磷酸化 p62 的 HCC 细胞的增殖。
  39. GC65967 RIP2 Kinase Inhibitor 3 RIP2 Kinase Inhibitor 3 是一种高效、选择性的受体相互作用蛋白 -2 (RIP2) 激酶抑制剂,IC50 值为 1 nM。
  40. GC65961 P53R3 P53R3 是一种有效的 p53 reactivator,可恢复 p53 热点突变体(包括 p53R175H、p53R248W 和 p53R273H)的序列特异性 DNA 结合。P53R3 以比 PRIMA-1 高得多的特异性诱导 p53 依赖性抗增殖作用。P53R3 增强了野生型 p53 和 p53M237I 向几个靶基因启动子的募集。 P53R3 强烈增强死亡受体死亡受体 5 (DR5) 的 mRNA、总蛋白和细胞表面表达。 P53R3 可以用于癌症研究。
  41. GC65920 PD1-PDL1-IN 1 PD1-PDL1-IN 1 是有效的程序性细胞死亡 1 (PD-1) 抑制剂。PD1-PDL1-IN 1 可用作免疫调节剂。
  42. GC65880 ADH-6 TFA ADH-6 TFA 是一种三吡啶酰胺化合物。ADH-6 TFA 消除了突变 p53 DBD 的聚集成核亚结构域的自组装。ADH-6 TFA 靶向并解离人类癌细胞中的突变 p53 聚集体,从而恢复 p53 的转录活性,导致细胞周期停滞和细胞凋亡 (apoptosis)。ADH-6 TFA 具有研究癌症疾病的潜力。
  43. GC52196 RGD Peptide An inhibitor of integrin-ligand interactions
  44. GC52192 (S)-4'-nitro-Blebbistatin A more stable and less phototoxic form of (–)-blebbistatin
  45. GC52191 Deacetylanisomycin A derivative of anisomycin
  46. GC52175 IQA A CK2 inhibitor
  47. GC65610 (R)-5-Hydroxy-1,7-diphenyl-3-heptanone (R)-5-Hydroxy-1,7-diphenyl-3-heptanone 是一种二芳基庚烷,存在于 Alpinia officinarum 中。(R)-5-Hydroxy-1,7-diphenyl-3-heptanone 通过激活 Nrf2/ARE 通路改善氧化应激和胰岛素抵抗。
  48. GC65580 Sugemalimab Sugemalimab 是一种完整的人全长抗程序性死亡配体 1 (PD-L1) 免疫球蛋白 G4 (IgG4) 单克隆抗体 (mAb)。Sugemalimab 显示出抗癌活性,可用于非小细胞肺癌的研究。
  49. GC65565 Cyproheptadine Cyproheptadine HCl(Periactin) is a hydrochloride salt form of cyproheptadine which is a histamine receptor antagonist.
  50. GC65555 PROTAC FLT-3 degrader 1 PROTAC FLT-3 degrader 1 是基于 von Hippel-Lindau 的 FLT-3内部串联重复 (ITD) 降解剂 PROTAC,IC50为0.6 nM。抗增殖,诱导凋亡活性。
  51. GC65542 NSC-87877 disodium A potent inhibitor of SHP-1 and SHP-2

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